Which theory argues that an individuals behavior can be trained or conditioned?
Operant conditioning is a theory of learning in behavioral psychology which emphasises the role of reinforcement in conditioning. It emphasises the effect that rewards and punishments for specific behaviors can have on a person’s future actions. The theory was developed by the American psychologist B. F. Skinner following experiments beginning in the 1930s, which involved the use of an operant conditioning chamber. Operant and classical conditioning remain important theories in our understanding of how humans and other animals learn new forms of behavior. Show
Early Developments in Conditioning: Pavlov’s DogsEarly research into conditioning was conducted by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. During studies of digestion in dogs, he noticed that his subjects would salivate when a researcher fed them. After the researcher had opened a door, entered the room and fed the dogs a few times, the animals began to associate the door opening with food, and would begin to salivate whenever they heard the door. Through associative learning, the dogs had linked an neutral stimulus (the door opening) with an unconditioned stimulus (food). Repeated classical conditioning had led to the door becoming a conditioned stimulus, which prompted the dogs to salivate. ConditioningPavlov conducted additional research, known as the ‘Pavlov’s dog’ experiments, in which he further investigating classical conditioning as a form of learning. Exposing dogs to a variety of stimuli before feeding them, he discovered that the animals could be conditioned to salivate in response to different types of event, such as the ringing of a buzzer or the sounding of a metronome (Pavlov, 1927). Thorndike’s Law of EffectIn 1905, American psychologist Edward Thorndike proposed a ‘law of effect’, which formed the basis of our modern understanding of operant conditioning. Thorndike’s research focussed on learning processes and he conducted experiments to discover how cats learn new forms of behavior. He would place a cat in a puzzle box, where the animal would be remain until they learnt to press a lever. Initially, they would be trapped in the box for a long period of time, roaming it before inadvertently pressing the lever, and a door opened for the cat to escape. However, once the cats learnt to associate operating the lever with a positive outcome - being able to leave the box - they wasted less and less time before using it to escape. Through instrumental learning, the cats had learnt to associate pressing the lever with the reward of freedom (Thorndike, 1898). Thorndike drew on these findings when developing his law of effect. He argued that the effect of one’s action - whether it is rewarded or punished - influences whether an individual will be likely to repeat such behavior in the future. B. F. SkinnerBurrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990) was an influential American psychologist, writer and inventor. Born in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, he studied at Hamilton College in New York, where he graduated in 1926 with plans to pursue a career in writing. However, a lack of success as an author, and his discovery of the theories of Ivan Pavlov, prompted an interest in psychology. He enrolled at Harvard University, where he completed his masters and in 1931, a doctorate. Skinner remained in a teaching position at Harvard whilst continuing his research. In 1938, he outlined a theory of learning involving operant conditioning. Aside from his work in psychology, Skinner was also a keen inventor. During the Second World War, he took part in Project Pigeon, a failed attempt to create a missile controlled by pigeons. Amongst his more successful inventions was the air crib, a temperature-controlled environment for babies, which he used with one of his own children. Skinner retired from Harvard University in 1974. He died from leukemia in 1990. Operant Conditioning ChamberWhen B. F. Skinner began studying psychology, it was the theories and ideas of the behaviorist school dominated the discipline. Many psychologists agreed with the proposals made by John B. Watson (1878-1958). In 1913, he published “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It”, an article now cited as the “behaviorist manifesto”. Watson argued that the human mind could be most effectively understood by looking at a person’s observable behavior, rather than his or her cognitive processes, which he believed were more difficult to observe and quantify. As a fellow behaviorist, Skinner believed that conditioning played a significant role in the learning process. He studied Thorndike’s law of effect using a piece of experimental apparatus now known as an operant conditioning chamber, or ‘Skinner box’. An animal is placed in a box, which contains a reward mechanism such as a hopper to dispense food pellets. A researcher can observe the animal whilst administering rewards. Punishments can also be imposed using the electrified base of the box to deliver electric shocks. A light and a speaker built into the side of the chamber allow for a signal to be communicated to the subject, whilst the animals are given with a lever to press. In 1938, Skinner published The Behavior of Organisms, in which he described the functions of operant conditioning. Whilst experimenting with an operant conditioning chamber, he had found that animals behaving in a particular manner would either repeat or avoid that behavior depending on whether they were subsequently rewarded or punished. In one experiment, Skinner (1948) observed the behavior of pigeons in the box. The birds were free to move around the box, turning full circle and moving their heads. Meanwhile, the hopper fed the subjects at regular timed intervals, regardless of the their behavior. Skinner found that when a bird’s particular movement was coincidentally but repeatedly followed by food, the pigeons would interpret the behavior as having caused the hopper to offer a reward. A variety of superstitious behaviors, including twists and full-circle turns, were adopted by the birds in the expectation that food would follow. Skinner explained the pigeons’ behavior in terms of operant conditioning. The food served as a positive reward for the birds’ behavior, leading them to repeat a particular movement more often when they found that it was subsequently rewarded. The reinforcements and punishments which influence behavior take a number of forms. A positive reward or punishment describes the imposition of a stimuli in a situation. Depending on the stimuli, this may either promote or discourage an individual’s behavior. Conversely, negative rewards and punishments involve the removal of a particular benefit or punishment. Again, these reinforcements may influence a person’s future actions. Positive ReinforcementA positive reinforcement is the provision of a reward or other benefit following a desirable action. This encourages a person or animal to repeat a particular behavior in future, in the hope that the reinforcement will be repeated. Examples of positive reinforcements include:
Negative ReinforcementNegative reinforcements are the removal of an undesirable or uncomfortable stimuli from a situation. Such reinforcements may involve the ceasing of punishment when a person’s behavior conform to a demand. In order to avoid future punishment, an individual may change his or her behavior. For example:
Positive PunishmentA positive punishment is a stimuli imposed on a person when they behave in a particular way. Over time, the person learns to avoid the positive punishment by altering their behavior. Examples of positive punishment:
Negative PunishmentNegative punishment is the removal of a benefit or privilege in response to undesirable behavior. A person wants to retain the benefits that they previously enjoyed, and avoids behavior which may lead to their rights being revoked. Negative punishment examples include:
As with its classical counterpart, operant conditioning depends on the repetition of a stimulus in order to maintain the association between behavior and a reinforcement. Initial conditioning is repeated in order to create an association, and must then be periodically repeated so that the link between the two is not lost. If, after initial conditioning, the reinforcement is removed (e.g. a treat is no longer given when a dog behaves), the subject will eventually ‘unlearn’ the association. Extinction can result in the person or animal resuming their original behavior. Schedules of ReinforcementSkinner was curious to find out what variables affected the effectiveness of operant conditioning. He conducted research into the effect of timing on conditioning with Charles B. Ferster, a fellow behavioral psychologist who worked at the Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology in Florida. Ferster and Skinner (1957) found that schedules of reinforcement - the rate at which a reinforcement is repeated - can greatly influence operant conditioning. A number of types of schedules of reinforcement have been proposed by Skinner, Ferster and others, including: Continuous Reinforcement Schedules (CRF)A reward or punishment is provided every time an individual exhibits a particular mode of behavior. Through continuous reinforcement, the subject learns that the result of their actions will always be the same. However, the dependability of continuous reinforcement can lead to it becoming too predictable. A subject may learn that a reward will always be provided for a type of behavior, and only carry out the desired action when they need the reward. For instance, a rat may learn that pushing a lever will always lead to food being provided. Given the security that this schedule of reinforcement provides, the rat may decide to save energy by only pressing the lever when it is sufficiently hungry. Partial Reinforcement Schedules (PR)Instead of responding every time a person behaves in a particular way, partial reinforcement involves rewarding behavior only on some occasions. A subject must then work harder to receive a reinforcement and may take longer to learn using this type of operant conditioning. Partial reinforcement can be used following a period of initial continuous reinforcement to prolong the effects of operant conditioning. For example, an animal trainer might give a treat to a dog every time it sits on command. Once the animal has learnt that a reward provided for obeying the trainer, partial reinforcement may be used. The dog may receive a treat only every 5 times it obeys a command, but the conditioned behavior continues to be reinforced and extinction is avoided. Partial reinforcement modifies the ratio between the conditioned response and reinforcement, or the interval between reinforcements:
Differences from Classical ConditioningAlthough classical and operant conditioning share similarities in the way that they influence behavior and assist in the learning process, there are important differences between the two types of conditioning. During classical conditioning, a person learns by observation, associating two stimuli with each other. A neutral stimuli is presented in conjunction with another, unconditioned, stimulus. Through repetition, the person learns to associate the first seemingly unrelated stimuli with the second. In contrast, operant conditioning involves learning through the consequences of one’s actions. It is the reinforcement that follows behavior which informs a person’s future actions. A person behaves in a particular manner and is subsequently rewarded or punished. They eventually learn to associate their original behavior with the reinforcement, and either increase, maintain or avoid their behavior in future in order to achieve the most desirable outcome. EvaluationSkinner’s theory of operant conditioning played a key role in helping psychologists to understand how behavior is learnt. It explains why reinforcements can be used so effectively in the learning process, and how schedules of reinforcement can affect the outcome of conditioning. Skinner’s research also addressed the use of behavioral shaping, whereby successive approximations of an expected response are also reinforced, leading a subject gradually towards the desired type of behavior. An advantage of operant conditioning is its ability to explain learning in real-life situations. From an early age, parents nurture their children’s behavior using rewards. Praise following an achievement (e.g. crawling or taking a first step) reinforce such behavior. When a child misbehaves, punishments in the form of verbal discouragement or the removal of privileges are used to dissuade them from repeating their actions. Operant conditioning can also be observed in its applications across a range of learning environments. Teachers reward students’ achievements with high grades, words of encouragement and star-shaped stickers on homework - all examples of positive reinforcement. Positive punishments - detention, exclusion or parents grounding their children until their behavior changes - serve to further influence behavior using the principles of operant conditioning. And its uses are not limited to influencing human behavior: dog trainers use reinforcements to shape behavior in animals and to encourage obedience. Skinner’s theory has, however, been criticised for its oversimplification of the complex nature of human behavior. Operant conditioning is based on the idea that behavior is ‘learnt’ simply through the process of reinforcement. However, it neglects individual differences and the cognitive processes that influence behavior. This has led critics to label Skinner’s ideas as deterministic: operant conditioning assumes that environmental factors beyond a person’s control are responsible for their behavior. It fails to account for people’s ability to reason and to decide their actions according to their own free will. Which theory argues that an individual's behavior can be trained or conditioned?Operant conditioning (also called instrumental conditioning) is a type of associative learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment. It is also a procedure that is used to bring about such learning.
What is theory of conditioning?The conditioning theory of learning describes a form of learning where learning occurs as a result of associating a condition or stimulus with a particular reaction or response. Human behavior is shaped by habits we pick up in response to certain situations in life and is the outcome of learning by conditioning theory.
What is behaviorism theory?Behaviorism focuses on the idea that all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment. This learning theory states that behaviors are learned from the environment, and says that innate or inherited factors have very little influence on behavior.
Which of the following motivational theories involves an individual's perceived view of fairness?Equity Theory (Adam's Equity Theory) explains the thought process an employee uses to determine the fairness of management decision making. The core of equity theory says that individuals judge the fairness of their treatment based on how others like them are treated.
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