Chapter 1•Statistics:The term statistics refers to a set of mathematical procedures for organizing,summarizing, and interpreting information.oStatistics are used to organize and summarize the information so that the researchercan see what happened in the research study and can communicate the results toothers.oStatistics help the researcher to answer the questions that initiated the research bydetermining exactly what general conclusions are justified based on the specific resultsthat were obtained.•Population: The set of all the individuals of interest in a particular study.•Sample: A set of individuals selected from a population, usually intended to represent thepopulation in a research study.•Variable: A characteristic or condition that changes or has different values for differentindividuals.•Data:[plural] Measurements or observations.•Data set: A collection of measurements or observations.•Datum[singular]: A single measurement or observation and is commonly calledascoreorraw score.•Parameter:A value—usually a numerical value—that describes a population. A parameter isusually derived from measurements of the individuals in the population.•Statistic: A value—usually a numerical value—that describes a sample. A statistic is usually
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Terms in this set [63]
producers
those who produce data [ those who know a lot about statistical tools' limitations]
consumers
producers have to know a lot about this group [us]
inferential statistics
statistical techniques that allow us to study samples and then make generalizations about the populations from which they were selected
parameter
a researcher is curious about the average age of drivers in the city of Columbus. If he obtains a database of every driver in the city and calculates the average, this is an example of a
If we were looking at the average IQ of all Americans by looking at a sample of 50 people, ...
because of sampling error, the average may be greater than or less than the average for the population
statistical methods are classified into these 2 categories
1. descriptive
2. inferential
2 students, Lauren and Mary, are studying the average age at death of females in the town of Mobile, Alabama in the year 2011. Lauren claims that the set of records represents the population for their study. Mary claims that it is only a sample. Who is correct and why?
Lauren is correct. The study is only about female deaths in Mobile during 2011. A population is the set of all individuals of interest in a particular study
A research study is comparing salaries for recent college graduates in Spain vs France reports that graduates in France earn more than those in Spain. What research design did they use
nonexperimental: does not have control or experimental groups
A scientist is studying the effect of temperature on the ability of a plant to grow. She places four plants in environments of four different temperatures. All plants are given the same amount of water and light each day. She measures the height of each plant at the end of a month. Which describes the independent variable
room temperature: variable that is being manipulated by the researcher
A scientist is studying the effect of temperature on the ability of a plant to grow. She places four plants in environments of four different temperatures. All plants are given the same amount of water and light each day. She measures the height of each plant at the end of a month. Which describes the dependent variable
plant heights: variable that is being observed by researcher
in what kind of study will you find a quasi-independent variable?
nonexperimental studies: the quasi independent variable is used to create different groups of scores
what is not required for a proper experiment
quasi-independent variable
what is required for an experiment?
two variables: control and experimental condition
John and Aaron are looking at a series of quiz scores. The quiz is a short quiz on which students could score 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, or 3 points. John claims that the quiz score is a discrete variable and Aaron claims that it is a continuous variable. Who is correct?
John is correct b/c there is a finite number of scores with no possible values in between those scores
discrete variable
consists of separate, indivisible categories, where no values can exist between 2 neighboring categories
discrete variable
a researcher studies the factors that determine the number of cars owned by American families. The variable, number of cars, is an example of...
when measuring weights to the nearest half ounce, what are the real limits for a score of 23 ounces?
22.75 and 23.25: the real limit separating 2 adjacent scores is located exactly halfway between scores. Since the possible scores for rounding to the nearest half inch include 22.5, 23, and 23.5, the lower real limit for 23 is [22.5 +23]/2= 22.75 and the upper limit is 23 +23.5]/2= 23.25.
true or false: all interval scales are ratio scales
false
true or false: all nominal scales are ratio scales
false
true or false: all ratio scales are nominal scales
false
true or false: all ratio scales are interval scales
true
operational definitions of shyness
1. number of people interacted with over the course of a day
2. amount of time spent alone
3. number
of times eye contact is made in the course of a conversation
what are the value of n and ∑X for the following scores: 3, 3, 4, 6?
n=4 and ∑X=16
What is the correct order for calculating ∑[X-1]^2
subtract 1 from every term, square the result of each subtraction, and then add the squares [order of operations]
what is equivalent to ∑[X-1]^2
X^2 + 2∑X + ∑1
for which situation is n = ∑X?
when values of X are all 1
Researchers are conducting a study to determine the effect of caffeine on memory among Americans. A sample of 100 individuals is given a list of 20 words to look at and remember over the course of 24 hours. What is the correct notation?
n=100
statistics
refers to a set of mathematical procedures for organizing, summarizing, and interpreting information
population
set of all individuals of interest in a particular study
sample
set of individuals from a population, usually intended to represent the population in a research study
raw score
[datum is singular] datum is referred to as a raw score
data set
collection of measurements or observations
data
measurements or observations
parameter
a value- usually a numerical value- that describes a population. It is usually derived from measurements of the individuals in he population
statistic
numerical value that describes a sample. Is usually derived from measurements of individuals in the sample
descriptive statistics
statistical procedures used to summarize, organize, and simplify data
inferential statistics
consist of techniques that allow us to study samples and then make generalizations about the populations from which they were selected
sampling error
naturally occurring discrepancy, or error, that exists between a sample statistic and the corresponding population parameter
constructs
internal attributes or characteristics that cannot be directly observed but are useful for describing and explaining behavior
operational definition
identifies a measurement procedure for measuring an external behavior and uses the resulting measurements as a definition and a measurement of a hypothetical construct.
2 components of an operational definition:
1. describes set of operations for measuring a construct
2. defines the construct in terms of the resulting measurements
discrete variable
consists of separate, indivisible categories. No values can exist between 2 neighboring categories
continuous variable
there are an infinite number of possible values that fall between any two observed values.It is divisible into an infinite number of fractional parts
real limits
boundaries of intervals for scores that are represented on a continuous number line. The real limit separating 2 adjacent scores in located exactly halfway between the scores. Each score has 2 real limits. The upper real limit is at the top of the interval, and the lower limit is at the bottom
lower real limit
limit at the bottom of the interval
upper real limit
limit at the top of the interval
nominal scale
consists of a set of categories that have different names. Measurements on this scale label and categorize observations, but do not make any quantitative distinctions between observations
ordinal scale
consists of a set of categories that are organized in an ordered sequence. Measurements on an ordinal scale rank observations in terms of size or magnitude.
interval scale
consists of ordered categories that are all intervals of exactly the same size.Equal differences in numbers on scale reflect equal differences in magnitude. The 0 point on an interval scale is aribtrary and does not indicate a zero amount of the variable being measured
ratio scale
a ratio scale is an interval scale with additional feature that a score of 0 indicates none of the variable being measured. With a ratio scale, ratios of numbers reflect ratios of magnitude
descriptive research or descriptive research strategy
involves measuring one or more separate variables for each individual with the intent of simply describing the individual
correlation method
two different variables are observed to determine whether there is a relationship between them
experimental method
one variable is manipulated, while the other is being measured. To establish a cause- and - effect relationship between the two variables, an experiment attempts to control all other variables to prevent them from influencing the results
independent variable
variable that is being manipulated. In behavioral research, the independent variable usually consists of the 2 or more treatment conditions to which subjects are exposed. It is manipulated prior to observing the dependent variable
dependent variable
observed to assess the effect of the treatment
control condition
individuals do not receive the experimental treatment. They receive no treatment or receive a placebo treatment. The purpose of a control condition is to provide a baseline for comparison with the experimental condition.
experimental condition
individuals receive treatment
quasi-independent variable
in a nonexperimental study, the independent variable that is used to create the different groups of scores
variable
characteristic or condition that changes or has different values for different individuals
example of nominal scale
gender, hair color [mutually exclusive], do not have any numerical significance
example of ordinal
difference between ok and unhappy on a questionairre about how you feel today, they are non-numerical [use median or mode]
example of interval scales
difference between 60 and 50 degrees is 10 degrees, time
example of ratio scale
height, weight
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